Stem Cell Research The Medical Field For Future Studies...

Our entire bodies are made up of cells; without them, our bodies would not be able to thrive, let alone be created. Our bones, muscles, organs, tissues and skin are all composed of specialized cells that code for the type of cell they are assigned to be. Many body cells, for example, a liver cell, can reproduce many new cells; but the cells reproduced are only capable of being created as a liver cell. This example is a major reason why researchers are so interested in stem cell research. Stem cells are not specialized to a particular purpose in the body. Stem cells hold power to become any type of cell in the body. This is relevant to researchers in the medical field for future studies and cures. Stem cells are unique compared to other types of cells due to their unspecialized characteristic and the ability to become a new kind of specialized cell with the help of an experimental condition. They are also unique while studying their capability of dividing and renewing themselves even if dormant for an extended period of time. Scientists have begun to work primarily with two types of stem cells. These two cells are derived from animal and human cells, known as Embryonic Stem Cells (ESC) and Adult Stem Cells or also known as Somatic Stem cells. Somatic cells are easier to obtain throughout the body and are found inside of different types of tissues. Somatic cells have been found in tissues throughout the body such as; blood, muscles, skin, brain, and bone marrow. These cellsShow MoreRelatedResearch On Stem Cell Research1459 Words   |  6 PagesTo Provide Medical Treatments or Not People with serious medical conditions constantly seek assistance and cures for recovery. However, many of these problems are currently untreatable. Scientists constantly try to find new ways to help patients in need. Studies done in the past few years have displayed many possible methods. Stem cell research is a recent discovery that brings intense controversy: one side believes that the research is beneficial to the advancement of finding medical treatmentsRead MoreAn Argument in Favor of Stem Cell Research Essay1507 Words   |  7 Pagesbattle more heated than in the fight over stem cell research. While supporters of this new field of science tout it’s potential to cure everything from blindness to paralysis, those against stem cell science liken the procedures used by scientists to murder. It is my intention to bring to light the positive benefits of stem cell research as well as counter the claims used by many Pro-life groups who believe the scientists driving this inno vative field of study are nothing more than murders. Most scientistsRead MoreA Research Study On Stem Cell Research1644 Words   |  7 PagesStem cell research has covered many parts of research today and is growing progressively and becoming more common in research today. These cells have the potential to grow and develop into any other cell type in the body and form or make up the tissues of the body and organs. There are millions of people today who suffer from birth defects or diseases because of damaged cells or tissue. Stem cells give researchers the ability cure and replace almost all the cells in the body and help grow new tissueRead MoreStem Cell Research And The Medical Field Essay1736 Words   |  7 PagesStem cells have become one of the largest research fields in the Department of Regenerative Medicine. They are often referred to as the â€Å"building blocks of nature† due to their ability to transform into any type of cell in the human body. It has led to the controversy of the possible chance that stem cells ca n regenerate organs, and cure life threatening diseases. This topic has been publicly discussed among scientists and healthcare professionals. There are different types of stem cells, such asRead MoreStem Research On Stem Cell Research1530 Words   |  7 PagesHiga Capstone 2 October, 2014 Stem Cell Beats Ethic Issues Stem cell research is the most controversial topic in the health field since abortion. Stem cell research however, has the potential to unlock an infinite amount of possibilities as well be the key to curing patients with terminal illnesses. Many people from around the world have their opinions on this type of research dealing with ethics, politics, and religion. The most efficient way to study stem cells is taking them from donated embryosRead MoreThe Debate Of Embryonic Stem Cell Research1460 Words   |  6 Pages I believe that embryonic stem cell research should be allowed in the United States. From previous encounters with the topic I have learned that the many benefits that can come from stem cell research are without a doubt astounding and unimaginable. There are simply endless possibilities that can arise if the research was allowed to be conducted. From giving back vision to rebuilding tissue, any advance in stem cell research would be beneficial to the medical world. W ith the help that the advancesRead MoreThe Controversial Topic Of Stem Cell Research Essay1414 Words   |  6 PagesStem Cell Research is still the most controversial topic in science today. The idea behind the experiment involves the development, use, and destruction of human embryos. The research method mainly focuses on embryonic stem cells, which involves taking tissue from an aborted embryo to get a better look at the cell and obtain information for the fundamental properties of the cells. Embryonic stem cells play a major role in the research because the cell provides information for cell development toRead MoreStem Cell Research Controversy Essay681 Words   |  3 Pagesover stem cell research’s use in the medical field is almost two decades old. So why the sudden intense return of fierce political debates over an old issue? It’s because President Obama recently revoked the ban on stem cell research, as he believes it holds the potential to revolutionize the m edical industry in the years to come. As USA Today quoted him saying in March, after he stopped restricting federal funding for stem cell research, At this moment, the full promise of stem cell research remainsRead MoreThe Controversy Of Embryonic Stem Cells1034 Words   |  5 PagesFor decades, researchers’ use of stem cells has caused a controversy and the consideration of the ethics of research involving the development, usage, and destruction of human embryos. Most commonly, this controversy focuses on embryonic stem cells. Not all stem cell research involves the creation, usage and destruction of human embryos. For example, adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells do not involve creating, using or destroying human embryos and thus areRead MoreResearch On Stem Cell Research1582 Words   |  7 Pagesis beginning to fall behind in its advancement in research compared to the rest of the world due, to the lack of federal funding. One advan cement which creates conflicts and dilemmas is stem cell research. The conflicts are specific types of stem cells are unethical and not morally right to research on, but not all stem cells are this way. Stem cell research is the study of different types of stem cells and their possible clinical uses. Stem cells can be developed to act as treatments for different

Crime And Its Effects On Urban Areas - 1968 Words

Crime is a familiar and perilous concern in American society, and crime damages the foundation of this America. The ongoing population shift from rural to urban areas has helped to facilitate crime in the United States through the decades. Showing the focused element and impact of crime in society and the consequence of crime in urban areas, is to better understand the people, and knowing that when criminals know the procedures of the crime they get new opportunity to do it. Examining the crimes can give insight into who and why, but there are many extenuating circumstances which need to be factored. Urbanization has given opportunity and capability for the criminal element to thrive. Criminal activities are an onus for any nation,†¦show more content†¦(Department of Homeland Security 2017) Race will be defined as white and non-white. Crime also needs to be defined as â€Å"white collar† or â€Å"blue collar†, this allows for differentiation between who is co mmitting which types of crime. the Letric Law Library defines white and blue collar crime as, â€Å"Blue-collar crime is a term given to criminal acts more likely to be committed by citizens of lower social class in society, such as those which inflict direct harm on the person or property of others. This is in contrast to white-collar crime, which is generally committed by citizens of higher social class, who are more likely to be presented with the opportunity to commit such crimes.† (Blue Collar Crime). Blue collar crimes are more likely to be of a violent nature and committed by people in a lower economic position. Although White collar crime can be extremely harmful, it is not generally physical, or physically damaging and for the most part committed by people of a higher social status. For the purposes of this paper, blue collar crime as it has been defined will be the focus. Urban crime is being committed at a higher rate than rural crime, according to National Cr ime Vitim’s Survey, â€Å"In 2012, the rate of violent victimizations reported by victims to the NCVS was 3,240 per 100,000 persons’ age 12 or older in urban areas, 2,380 per 100,000 persons’ age 12 or older in suburban areas, and 2,090 per 100,000Show MoreRelatedPoverty and Crime (Sociology)1600 Words   |  7 Pagesand Crime A social issue that has always intrigued me was crime (petty crime, violent crime, etc) in impoverished urban areas and the social and economic impact that crime causes in these areas. Before conducting my research into this topic, I have always pondered why crime and poverty are so closely related. Are these two so closely linked solely because of the lack of income in the area? Or are there some other unknown or unexplained reasons that influence crime in impoverished urban areasRead MoreWhite Flight, And The Effects Of It1482 Words   |  6 PagesThere have been many different studies that focus particularly on white flight, and the effects of it. Many studies particularly focus on reasons why it happened, and rarely on the effects of it. This particular paper will focus on the effects of white flight. It will mainly focus on certain effects such as crime and income levels within urban areas. White flight is a process in which white people, especially middle class white people, from inner city neighborhoods undergoing racial integrationRead MoreThe Social Of Crime And Criminal Behavior882 Words   |  4 Pagesneighborhoods or environments have on crime has been observed and studied throughout the last two centuries. Many theories, such as the social disintegration theory, have been hypothesized to explain the effects of certain neighborhoods on crime. In addition, other theories have been presented, such as the collective efficacy theory, which serve to explain the reasons for reduced crime in other neighborhoods while presenting possible solutions to solve the problem of crime in society. This paper willRead MoreEssay on Why so Much Crime is Committed in Urban Areas606 Words   |  3 PagesWhy so Much Crime is Committed in Urban Areas Crime in urban areas has been on the increase since the 1950s, why? What has happened to cause crime to become almost an accepted part of inner city life? There are plenty of crime figures available for every city in the world, but reading numbers from a list does not explain why more crimes are being committed, to try to understand we have to look at what has changed in urban communities and how these changes have affectedRead MoreProperty Crime Report1462 Words   |  6 Pagesstatistics on major factors that affects the property crime rates in the U.S. Abstract: The property crime rates of 45.7% occurs more in urban areas. About 16.8% of the crimes were committed by high school dropouts and only 0.4% of the crimes that occurs were related to the population density. The type of property crimes that happens includes larceny-theft, home burglary, home invasion, grand theft auto, forgery, and arson. These types of crimes may be caused by factors such as high school dropoutsRead MoreSocial Disorganization Theory Of Rural Youth Violence1603 Words   |  7 Pagesneighborhood context alone. Wanting to extend the theory of social disorganization and crime beyond the scope of large urban cities, D. Wayne Osgood and Jeff M. Chambers released their study, Social Disorganization Outside the Metropolis: An Analysis of Rural Youth Violence, in order to â€Å"assess the generalizability to this setting of the social disorganization theory of crime that has been developed and tested in urban communities† (Osgood Chambers, 2000). They hypothesize that rates of juvenile delinquencyRead MoreUrban Decline With Middle Class1445 Words   |  6 Pagesnotion of gentrification that indicated the urban decline with middle class individuals abruptly and surprisingly moving into neighborhood where crime rates were tremendously high. In the study, time- arrangement information from fourteen gentrified neighborhoods in Boston, New York, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, D.C., were broke down to figure out whether gentrification had an impact on wrongdoing rates in focal city n eighborhoods. The areas took after each other in natural or locationalRead MoreUrban Migration During The Industrialization1708 Words   |  7 Pagesboth countries. In England, the percentage of population living in urban areas saw an increase from 17% to 72% in during the Industrial Revolution (Watson). China’s urban population rose from 26% to 53% in 2012 which brings the total urban population to 712 million people (Juan). Among these 712 million urban residents, nearly 250 million are migrant workers from rural areas (â€Å"The Great Transition†). In this paper I will explore urban migration during the industrialization, and the numerous impactsRead MoreMigration Of People From Rural Essay852 Words   |  4 Pagesinternal migration of people from rural to urban places, which is considered to be the most significant form of migration. Migration of people is considered to be a choice or force of movement. This movement has many consequences at a level of the indivi dual and the country as a while itself. (National Geographic Xpeditions, 2005) Populations in cities continue to grow through the migration of people from diverse locations. It has become more evident that urban places are more desirable compared toRead MoreHow The Social Structure Affect Social Impact Social Apathy And The Lack Of Delinquent Opportunity Within Their Neighborhood Essay872 Words   |  4 Pageshelp to explain if the neighborhood social processes, crime rates, and the lack of delinquent opportunity within their neighborhood, is solely the main effect for social disorganization amongst all of the racial groups in this research, or is it just one particular group (e.g. Latinos)? And if so, why does that group have more of a social disadvantage than the others? Then we can isolate the different types of types of influences within these urban neighborhoods ethnic/racial groups and focus on the

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Us Electoral System free essay sample

The electors chosen by each state are called the Electoral College. This consists of 538 members, comprising 100 senators, 435 congressmen, and 3 members from the District of Columbia. States with large populations, like California have over 50 electoral votes, while sparsely populated states like Alaska has only 3 electoral votes. This system of government makes the electoral system highly susceptible to voter suppression. Voter Suppression is the strategy to influence the outcome of an election by discouraging or preventing people from exercising their right to vote. It is distinguished from political campaigning because, it attempts to reduce the number of voters who might vote against the candidate or the proposition advocated by the suppressors, while political campaigning attempts to change the possible voting behavior by changing the opinions of potential voters through persuasion and organization. Voter suppression in the United States of America is mainly done by trying to discourage persons from voting by making the process harder, rather than preventing them from doing so. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 which was last amended in 2006 is the legislation set down to outlaw discriminatory voting practices against Americans. This law guarantees that the    federal government would intervene if any state attempted to deny a citizens voting rights because of race. The Act contained special enforcement provisions targeted at those areas of the country where Congress believed the potential for discrimination to be the greatest. This Act has been the main challenge to all possible attempts at voter suppression. Under the American electoral system, every state is able to set its own electoral laws, as long as it is in line with the Voting Rights Act this is good because each state is unique and will have its own unique electoral issues and a broad national law would not suit all states, but this also a key weakness as the lawmakers of each state are able to implement various voter suppression tactics to benefit their party under the pretext of preventing voter fraud and safeguarding election integrity. These voter suppression laws take many forms, and collectively lead to significant burdens for eligible voters trying to exercise their most fundamental constitutional right eg. During the 2011 legislative sessions, states across the country passed measures to make it harder for Americans, particularly African-Americans, the elderly, students and people with disabilities to exercise their fundamental right to cast a ballot. Over thirty states considered laws that would require voters to present government-issued photo ID in order to vote. Studies suggest that up to 11 percent of American citizens lack such ID, and would be required to navigate the administrative burdens to obtain it or forego the right to vote entirely. Three additional states passed laws to require documentary proof of citizenship in order to register to vote, though as many as 7 percent of American citizens do not have such proof. Seven states shortened early voting time frames, even though over 30 percent of all votes cast in the 2008 general election were cast before Election Day. Two state legislatures voted to repeal Election Day registration laws, though Election Day registration increases voter turnout by 10-12 percent. Finally, two states passed legislation making it much more difficult for third-party organizations to register voters so difficult, in fact, that some voter registration organizations are leaving the states altogether. A clear example of attempted voter suppression Florida came from Jim Greer, former Chair of the Florida Republican Party, on the Al Sharpton show where he said â€Å"In Florida, as in other states, its not the Democrats imaginations that are creating voter suppression issues; rather, its the systemic and predictable way in which Republicans are trying to discourage people likely to vote Democrat. They do this by creating arbitrary and unevenly enforced laws to create confusion and ultimately discourage the other sides voters. After an electoral spanking last cycle that was largely the backlash to neoconservative overreaches in the Bush Jr. era, Republicans were reflecting on how to deal with the surge of new and minority voters. I sat in on many meetings where it was discussed how to make sure what happened in 2008, when Obama brought out the college-aged voters, the minority voters, never happened again Another example of attempted voter suppression comes from South Carolina, where delegates there like in other states tried to pass a new law requiring photo identification at the polls, but were stopped by the Department of Justice, their submission did not include any evidence or instance of either in-person voter impersonation or any type of fraud that is not already addressed by the states existing voter identification requirement and that arguably could be deterred by requiring voters to present only photo identification at the polls. The department also found that non-white voters were 20 percent more likely to be excluded by the new law, a total of 81,938 registered minority voters lack the requisite identification. In concluding, it is safe to say the American electoral system, for the most part has been able to thwart attempts at voter suppression by the two major political parties. . Bibliography Online Newspaper Article Campbell, Ryan (September 04, 2012). Voter Suppression Series Part II: Florida. Retrieved from http://www. uffingtonpost. com/ryan-campbell/voter-suppression-in-florida_b_1840793. html Caldwell, Patrick (December 27, 2011). â€Å"Voting Wrongs. † What will the DOJ’s rejection of South Carolina’s voter identification mean? Retrieved from http://prospect. org/article/voting-wrongshttp://prospect. org/article/voting-wrongs Online Documents United States Department of Justice. History of Federal Voting Rights Laws-The Voting Rights Act of 1965. Retrieved from http://www. just ice. gov/crt/about/vot/intro/intro_b. php

Managing Innovation for Business

Customers’ needs are not static, they keep changing and so do businesses. Businesses are faced with the challenge of making strategic decisions on how change will be implemented. Innovation and invention in a company are changes that need to be natured and supported. The challenges come when a business is doing well, and an innovation to change its course of action is comes-by with the aim of better future.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Managing Innovation for Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Management must weigh the options available on whether to remain in the current operation state or move to a risky or un-tested structure that do not guarantee success current or future success (Fred,2008). Innovation cannot be limited to certain sections of a business but generally can take many forms; it can be an innovation in products and services produced or internal processes like marketing, human re sources and information technology. Innovators in a business in most cases are the employees who well understand their companies strengths and weakness, or may be from a new entrants who comes with a different approach of doing things. Management have the task of tapping these intellectual properties in human resources for an effective innovation. It is argued that one of the reasons why businesses have a longer life than human beings is innovation. They keen changing and innovating better ways to work and remain competitive. Phillips Lightening Company is an international company incorporated in 1891, by y Anton and Gerard Philips. Initially the company was called Philips Gloeilampen Fabrieken N.V. The success and the longevity of the company are vested in its innovativeness (Phillips Lightening Company Corporate Website, 2010). This paper discusses management of innovation in Philips Lighting Company. Brief Phillips lightening company Since its incorporation in 1891, Phillips has grown from a small business to an international multi-billion company. The company have launched new products in the market in its effort to remain competitive.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Among the innovated products include X-ray tubes earlier in 20th century, in mid 20th century, the company innovated Compact Cassette in the 60s, which it upgraded to Compact Disc in early 1980s, in 21st century, the company have innovated Ambilight TV. The innovations are enabled by a deep understanding by the company of the need to innovate. In the company, an innovation is generated internally but its research and development team, which is one of the most robust in the world, plays a significant role in the innovation. Innovation does not always guarantee a success, in 2000, the company was innovating fast and the time it was a leading bulb seller in the world only to innovate and suffer a loss of EUR 3,206millions. The following is the process that the company have undergone for successful innovation: Shared vision and leadership In case of an innovation, the top management of Phillips is actively involved. When an employee has come out with an innovation or invention, the company policy allows the employee to consult either the immediate supervisor or anyone else whom he thinks can undertake the innovation positively. If the innovator comes with an idea and shares with the supervisor, the supervisor has the role of discussing the innovation at supervisors meeting. From there, it is passed to management at departmental level and finally to the top most management. At all this time the employee is the one whom credit is accruing. In 2000, there was a meeting called â€Å"five minutes of silence†, the top management had called department leaders to come and discus on which method they can use to innovate. It was an open forum where the managers were as ked to air out their views. After five minutes every one trying to think on what to say, they were able to open up and discussed at length the way forward of the company. They developed a different vision and rapped everything with the saying that innovation is doing what you do better. The meeting served as a reminder to the managers of what they already knew that it is their task to enhance innovation in their company.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Managing Innovation for Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Appropriate structure For an innovative mind to develop there is need for an appropriate combination of employees. Proper combination does not mean highly trained or experienced employees because innovation can even come from the least learnt in a department. It requires a combination of highly knowledgeable people, people who may not be very established but have a developing mind and researchers. They are not locked in a room and told to innovate, but are offered the necessary support as they work together to develop better ways of doing things. After the 2000 meeting at Phillips, the management decided they needed to align their employee in a ways that can yield better result. In 2001, Central Lighting Development Lab developed a visionary team that was composed of four team employees of equal gender representation. Two of the team members were highly experienced in the department while the other two were new to the department. The role of the team was to inspire the department to come with better ways of doing things. They ran a program called â€Å"out of the box† , the program took only one year and it invented Ambilight TV. Alongside with the team of four, there was a team of four senior management, they were asking simple question to Phillip employees so they can trigger their minds to think of an innovation. The second team was called ‘New Business Creati on’ (NBC). From the above innovation of Ambilight TV, it is clear that management took deliberate moves to tap intellectual assets. They set up mechanism, which facilitated communication and innovativeness (Seebode, Harkin and Bessant ,2009). Key individuals After an idea has been developed, the person who has taken up the innovation, mostly the manager or the person who have come up with the idea determines its success. Not all innovated processes, products, or services are tested. Some are left to go and some innovations are tested.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The breakthrough that was attained in 2001 triggered the management to think of how they can have such programs in future but this time in a continual way. The CEO himself started ‘Think the Lighting Future’ project (TTLF), which members were senior managers to support the organisation to develop and tap intellectual assets of their teams. They even set a financial target that they were to attain in a period of five to seven years. They wanted to have ten percent growth rate, which was approximately an addition of EUR 500 million in profit. The project did not immediately yield results. It took time and after one year, they developed ‘Atmosphere Provider’, a project targeted at creating an atmosphere of innovation. In the project, management style and organisational culture of the company was changing were they started adopting a freelance culture. Pioneered by the senior management, the program was easy to develop and implement. After an innovation, the pr omoter should be well acquainted with the new process or products to be developed. This will assist in making others understand what direction the company is taking. Effective team working Developing an orchestrate team is important for successful innovation and support for an innovation. A team is composed of complimentary people mostly taking similar tasks or developing a certain project. How well a company blend the available talents will assist in creating an innovative atmosphere. Teams should be able to listen to each other, and the team leader should understand the potential of all his team members (Ettlie,2006). In July 2003, Phillips launched Atmosphere Provider Program: a program that was aimed at developing strong teams. People were interchanged in different departments and the best combination was gotten. The company manages its human resources in small teams, which are mandated with the task of undertaking a certain program. In 2000, there was the â€Å"out of the boxà ¢â‚¬ , new Business Creation’ (NBC) among others. They were incorporated to assist departments and undertake different project. There are main production teams and support teams like research and development. In the case of innovation, marketing and research and development team since they are more close to the consumers and the market offer a company input information on what they should do. They are strong posts in innovation. High creative environment To invent, create and innovate, there is need to have an environment that facilitated these three business elements. The management and the employees should have free and effective flow of information where they can exchange ideas. Other than office supervisor- boss interaction, there is need to have outdoor activities together. They relax the mood between the employees and management a move that facilitated better communication and innovation. When employees and top management communicate freely, they are likely to develop better processes and products. A strategy that facilitates innovation is recognition of past innovators; they should be noted as people who have made history to the company. Human beings are motivated by being recognised and thus a company with such kind of policy will have motivated staffs as far as innovation is concerned. Phillips maintained teams of applications, technologies, business models, new alliances, and the teams were given the necessary resources that they required when undertaking their activities. This combination and dependency among the teams gave rise to ‘Light Embedded in Furniture’ innovation. High involvement teamwork Innovators should be people who understand current processes and products/services and see a gap that the company is not fulfilling. In the case of Phillips, employees have been the major innovators as they learn processes that they undergo every day and look for better ways of doing thing. Eventually an innovation comes by (Phillips Lightening Company Corporate Website, 2010) External environment as an element of innovation Businesses operate in environments that have other players, government, shareholders, creditors, customers, society among others. External environment can be a source for innovation. It may offer its recommendation to research and development team, marketing, or call centres of an organisation. Through customer complaints and compliment, a company learns where it is not performing as per societal expectation and focus on such areas to innovate. What the competitor is offering can also trigger innovation. In shareholders meetings, some innovative mind can be gotten or triggered. The system is called innovation by crisis (Seebode, Harkin and Bessant ,2009). Phillips innovation cycle After an innovation has occurred in the company, it goes through various stages before it reaches to the final customer. The following is the cycle of innovation: Exploration This is where the company develops the idea and sets all processes to go. Any support from the top management and team members is sort so as when launch is done, then the company gets on business. The stage involves: Setting a brand tag key skills for leading incremental product innovation create product l believes and positional statements launch These processes are internal though products, services or process are set to go Prototyping and market testing This is market entering. The marketing team plays the most important role at this stage since it is supposed to sell the products and services to the people. Market segments are created and target groups established. The stage is important as it gives the response that new goods are getting form the market. Creating alliances and accounting for the changes After successful innovation, measures to strengthen the new system are put in place. They may involve having alliances with other companies, mergers or even acquiring some companies. Returns from the new system are counted and room for improvement created (Seebode, Harkin and Bessant ,2009). Conclusion Globalisation has increased competition among service and goods industries. To remain competitive, a company needs to innovate, invent and be creative. Managing innovation in an organisation is a deliberate move by management; it should be supported by all teams. Phillips Lightening Company has been in operation for over a century and remains relevant and competitive in today’s business environment. Its success is in innovation that it undertakes to fit market needs at a particular time. Phillips has motivated teams and provides a creative environment. Any small innovation gets support from top management. References Ettlie, E.,2006. Managing innovation: new technology, new products, and new services in a global economy. Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann. Fred, D. ,2008.Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Phillips Lightening Company Corporate Website, 2010. Seebode, D. Harkin, G. and Bessant, J. ,2009. Managing Innovation. Web. This report on Managing Innovation for Business was written and submitted by user Maya D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Does the Pentateuch tell a good story Essays

Does the Pentateuch tell a good story Essays Does the Pentateuch tell a good story Essay Does the Pentateuch tell a good story Essay Essay Topic: Left To Tell Religion The Pentateuch the first five books of the Old Testament seems to be fundamentally fragmented in form. Genesis tells of creation and of the early history of Israel up until preparations to leave Egypt, the next three books consider Israels drift through the desert and the laws formed on these travels, while Deuteronomy exists for the most part as a collection of laws and legislative poetry by Moses. Can such fragments make a good story? However, while the Pentateuch is both divided into five parts and appears to be fragmented in style and subject, the Pentateuch manages to show a unity in narrative1. What do we today understand by the term a good story? I would suggest that a clear beginning, middle and end are essential to hold onto narrative meaning and coherence as a story. The beginning must be powerful, must be able to address universal problems and questions and must both set the scene and introduce essential characters. The middle must intrigue, excite and be meaningful, while the end must seek to wrap up any questions or problems addressed and wrap up the narrative. I believe that to some degree, the Old Testament manages to do this. Genesis 1 is most definitely a powerful beginning. Surely nothing can be more grand and universal in scale that the very creation of the universe? Genesis also acts to introduce the main character of the Pentateuch, God, and His creation of man and the world. The first chapters of Genesis have to be seen to act as a universal framework for the way that we are to understand God, and indeed the world. But the story of creation must not be literally interpreted, or thought of as myth. The use of the word myth to describe this section of Genesis is frequently used, but can be misleading. Myths are often based on fantasy and fiction, but the creation story must be seen as aiming to give a true portrayal of the world and of humanity in the world in relation to God. Genesis establishes Him as the fundamental base and character through which all is to be interpreted. Genesis aims to set the scene for the way in which we are to understand the relationship between man and God. The overarching theme is that even though mans disobedience seems to isolate him from God, darkness and potential death are turned around. It appears that, salvation is identical with creation. 2 The first story of this kind in Genesis is that of Adam and Eve. Their disobedience of God in search of the fruit of knowledge and hence the attempt to become gods themselves, is met with severe punishment through the Fall they are separated from paradise and are met with pain and suffering. God, however, dresses them in skins which shows that life with God is not totally broken. Similarly, the story of Noah and the Ark shows how the evil and disobedience of man is punished with obliteration. Yet still potential life with God can be seen through the relationship of God and Noah. Noahs obedience of Gods word saved him and his family. These two stories are stories of the human condition to disobey God and to act evilly. Each one, however, ends in a glimmer of hope that suggests life with God. This possible life with God is articulated in His relationship with Abraham which begins in Genesis 12. The relationship between God and Abraham shows the reader emphatically how God deals with the human condition described in Genesis 1-11. This relationship is the realisation of a new beginning with God at the helm, and although the relationship is with Abraham alone and therefore seems to narrow down the extent of Gods work, this relationship holds a universal importance. Gods covenant with Abraham (seen in Genesis 15) can be seen as turning the darkness of the evil of man into a true life with God. However, even though the central theme is that God is offering as the saviour of Israel, he tells of a dark and terrifying future; a future of slavery and oppression. Faith is therefore an integral part of the story of Abraham. This is best shown when God instructs Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac. The sacrifice of Isaac, his only son from his wife Sarah, would surely lead to an awful and dark place in his life. God rewards Abrahams faith by sparing Isaacs life, but also Abraham is to be blessed with offspring, as numerous as the stars of heaven and by your offspring shall all the nations of the earth gain blessing for themselves 3 God shows universally that, if you obey God and have faith in His word, then you be blessed and find life with God. The story of Joseph is, however, the first great masterpiece of the Pentateuch. The point of the story is that Gods will is being articulated even though the individuals who are involved in it may not be entirely conscious of it. It appears to be the most coherent story met yet in the Pentateuch. Indeed, G. von Rad writes that, the stories about Joseph are clearly distinguished from those about Abraham and Jacob, and are a real connected narrative and not a compilation of many previously independent traditions. 4 Coherence, it seems, appears to be integral to unifying the narrative of the Pentateuch. The most powerful, dramatic and coherent story in the Pentateuch, however, must surely be Israels escape from Egypt with Moses a story that is also of utmost importance for the remaining parts of the Pentateuch. Exodus, the second book of the Pentateuch, essentially traces the escape from Egypt and Israels stay at Mount Sinai. We are shown very early on that this story will be central to both the Pentateuch and the Old Testament, as it is here that the real name of God, Yahweh, is revealed both in Exodus 3:15 and 6:2. Through Moses, God works to save Israel from the Egyptians, most notably by sending ten plagues on Egypt. Eight of these plagues affected agriculture in ancient times society depended heavily on agriculture to trade and to survive at all. Therefore, eight plagues affecting Egypts agriculture must not be passed over as insignificant, but instead taken to be as deadly serious. As the Israelites exit Egypt, the story becomes sincere and soft in tone shown in Exodus 12:42, that same night is a vigil to be kept for the Lord by all the Israelites throughout their generations, followed by directions of how to act on this Holy day. This quiet, however, is shattered by the hugely dramatic pillars of cloud and fire, by which God lead the Israelites out of Egypt. The almost physical form of God here emphasises God integral involvement in the present and future of Israel, and that Moses liberated the Israelites through the power of God. The crossing of the Red Sea shows the reader both the great power of God working through Moses, and God wrath for those who are disobedient all the pursuers are drowned, showing that all those who act against His people, those who reject the word of God, shall die and themselves be rejected from a life with God. This coherent narrative, and the following story of the Israelites stay at Mt. Sinai, makes an important impact on the story of the Pentateuch as a whole. Much of the rest of the book of Exodus is of a legislative nature, as is Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. However, as extensive areas of these books are of a legislative nature, can they really be said to make the Pentateuch a good story or in fact help to give a sense of overarching unity to the work as a whole? A narrative unity can be traced in the Pentateuch, although it is not at all times clear. Genesis acts as a prologue, while Exodus begins the story of Moses and the Israelites, but the story is broken with legislation surrounding the stay at Mt. Sinai. The Book of Leviticus acts to show what the Israelites must do for God, after showing them in Exodus what he had done for them in fact the instruction-like form of much of the scripture surrounding the stay at Mt. Sinai stretches from Exodus 19 Numbers 10; a significant body of work. One may ask how such interruptions to the narrative strengthen the Pentateuch as a story. It is important to understand that, aw lay at the foundation of Israels religion 5 Those who were disobedient to God in the past had been severely punished (Adam and Eve for example) and therefore Gods law became fundamental to Israels life and society. However, while there is definitely a narrative unity in the Pentateuch, it is often extremely thin and loosely scraped together. 6 Deuteronomy seems to be quite a separate collection of speeches all together. It is distinct in form, literary style and language and most scholars accept that Deuteronomy dates from the 7th century BCE obviously a far later work than Genesis through to Numbers. I am of the opinion that the collection of such obviously separate sources in Deuteronomy has resulted in a very uneven and inorganic whole. However, the Pentateuch does not exist without Deuteronomy, and the book does display narrative similarity with the previous books. For example, the Ten Commandments are restated in Deut 5 and Moses, the key figure in Israels history, both reminds Israel that God has cared for them, and himself acts as a symbol of Gods work. Deuteronomy can be seen as an expression of Gods basic will for Israels future, and ultimately acts as the culmination of the whole Pentateuch story. The book acts to emphasise that the Pentateuch has become the foundation story of Israel, a story that shapes and regulates Israel ever after, and a story that has become the canonical story of Israel. So what, if anything, is the unifying and underlying base of the Pentateuch as a story? Is there a thematic unity alongside the narrative? If the narrative exists as pearls on a necklace, is there a string upon which the narrative rests? Gods covenant could indeed be this theme, as it is an important feature of Genesis, Exodus and Deuteronomy. 7 One may also argue that Moses is the key theme. Although not present in Genesis, Gods word and action is articulated through Moses in Exodus-Deuteronomy. Scholars such as D. Clines argue that, The theme of the Pentateuch is the partial fulfilment of the promise to or blessing of the patriarchs 8 Clines thinks that this partial fulfilment can be seen in three stages: Genesis deals with the promise of descendants and great future generations, Exodus and Leviticus deal with promises surrounding the two way relationship between God and man, while Number and Deuteronomy deal with the promise of a land for Israel. The third stage is left unfulfilled at the end of the Pentateuch; the story is left seemingly incomplete. However, this can act to show modern readers that they are not simply looking back at the past, but that the Pentateuch is not a closed story it looks forward and therefore involves the modern reader in a story that regulated the life of Israel. Perhaps, also, the apparent failure of the Pentateuch to wrap up the loose ends must be viewed in the light of the New Testament? The Pentateuch could just be a signpost of that which is to come ultimately the Messianic prophesy. For example, the sacrifice of Christ can be seen as being prefigured by the near sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. If the Old Testament can be thought of as inconclusive and thought to require a sequel, then surely the New Testament is exactly this. God worked through Moses in the Old Testament; therefore, perhaps the embodiment of God in Christ in the New Testament can be seen to conclude perfectly the story that the Old Testament told. I would argue that the Pentateuch does tell a good story, and that it has both a narrative and thematic unity. Criticisers of the Pentateuch often make no attempt to ask, ow stories or literary complexes from originally discrete sources were to be read and understood when combined with one another 9 Negative evidence that suggests the disunity of the Pentateuch can be used constructively. It can show that consistent works can have their integrity destroyed by editorial attempts to mould them together. The Pentateuch, in the form that it exists today, can be seen as not only a collection of narrative sources, but also as a collection of theological concerns set against and integrated with one another, which together act in the past and the present to shape the life of Israel a life with God.

The Top 100 Transportation Jobs to Look for Right Now

The Top 100 Transportation Jobs to Look for Right Now If you’re interested in a career in transportation, or in finding a new career in the field, the tides of the industry are on your side. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), jobs that fall under the category of â€Å"transportation and material moving† are projected to grow through the year 2024, adding hundreds of thousands of jobs. Jobs in transportation can fall under many umbrellas. Check out the most thriving jobs in the field and see if one might be a good fit for you.Air Asset ControllerAir Traffic ControllerAircraft CaptainAircraft Quality Control InspectorAirfield Operations ManagerAirfield Operations SpecialistAirfield Operations SupervisorAirline DispatcherAirport Grounds Operations WorkerAirport ManagerAirport TransporterAirworthiness SpecialistAmbulance DriverAviation ManagerAviation Safety InspectorBoat CaptainBoat OperatorBoom Truck OperatorBulk DriverBus DriverChauffeurClass A DriverClass B DriverConductorCopilotDeck OfficerDock MasterDrive rDriver HelperDriver ManagerDriver SupervisorDriving TeacherDump Truck OperatorEmergency Vehicle DriverEquipment MoverFlatbed Truck DriverFlight AnalystFlight AttendantFlight CoordinatorFlight EngineerFlight InstructorFlight NavigatorFlight SchedulerForklift OperatorGeneral Transportation DirectorHelicopter PilotHousehold MoverJet PilotLocomotive EngineerLog Truck DriverMapping PilotMarine OilerMedical Cylinder DriverMotor Coach OperatorOver the Road Driver (OTR Driver)Owner / OperatorPallet Jack OperatorParking Lot AttendantParking Services SpecialistParking Systems ManagerPassenger Service AgentPatient Transport DriverPick Up and Delivery DriverPilotRail Motor Coach OperatorRamp AgentRelief DriverResidential DriverRoute DriverSailorSanitation DriverService Station AttendantShip CaptainShip Chief EngineerShip NavigatorShip SuperintendentShuttle DriverSimulator InstructorSkycapStacker OperatorStreet Cleaning Equipment OperatorSubway and Streetcar OperatorTaxi DriverTest PilotTest Pi lot ManagerTicket AgentTolling SpecialistTow Truck DriverTrain ManagerTransit DirectorTransit ManagerTransit OperatorTransit PlannerTransportation AideTransportation AnalystTransportation Facility RepresentativeTransportation InspectorTransportation Mobility ManagerTransporterTruck DriverVan DriverWheelchair Van DriverYard HostlerAccording to BLS, the median annual wage for transportation occupations was $30,730 in 2016.Education requirements differ for professions within the transportation field- many ask for no formal education or a high school diploma, while some require a post-secondary degree.This is a varied fields with lots of opportunity nationwide- do some searching to find the perfect position for your career goals!

The power of the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The power of the US - Essay Example The US is indeed an economic powerhouse with the US dollar being one of the world’s most stable currencies and has a very high exchange rate compared with most currencies. The US is a destination country for immigration, it has open policy for people who want to immigrate, and multiple nations come up because of its diverse culture. The USA works together with most of the other world powerhouses to help promote world peace and stability. It works closely with world organizations such as the U.N and N.A.T.O. The US Marines often work closely with other world countries that need assistance in military strategies and tactics. For a number of years, US has offered chances to those wishing to immigrate and stay as its nationals (Stealey, 2008). It also offers a "green card" program where it allows accredited foreigners to be able to become citizens of the United States after slow integration into the system. In addition, it offers resources to aid other nations of the world, especially the third world countries, should any international issues arise, which need attention. Many times it provides assistance in the form of finances, manpower resources, and consultancy services. Thus, the US is a destination country for

EMPLOYABILITY AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PowerPoint Presentation

EMPLOYABILITY AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT - PowerPoint Presentation Example ime tested advice, advice that have been rediscovered over a period of time often has a good deal of practical value (Hutchings, Sue, &Judy 2002, pg 189). Therefore, I think that this also applies to ways of improving social skill and building solid social network in the future. In summary, this paper will discuss on how to improve social skill and to build solid social network in the future. Improving social skill is significant because it builds a confidence interacting with people as well as, developing strong communication skills that would increase the chance for successful relationships, hence building a solid social network in the future. Social skills can be improved through good communication skills. It is evident that people are not born with good communication skills like any other trial; however, it is learned through error, trials and repeated practice. Presently, social skills have become an integral part of functioning both in communities and organizations. Therefore, displaying good manners, communicating effectively with others and expressing personal needs are all essential components of solid social skills. There are various ways in which social skills can be improved. These include being smart small. For instance, if talking to a crowd of people is a scary proposition, one can start small. This means that, one does not necessarily need to start out by having a long and a meaningful conversation with others, but he/she can simply share a smile with someone. Starting small is significant in increasing a persons’ confidence. The other way of improving social skills is through use and practice. Social skills may be practiced, however, people with anxiety may find this to be a scary prospect. In spite of all these, the good news is that any type of social interaction can help a person to develop his/her skills, which will help them in building a solid social network even in the future. The other way to improve social skills is through observing

Ethical Problems associated to Information Technology Essay Example for Free

Ethical Problems associated to Information Technology Essay Information technology has been continuously booming with new technological products that create a more diverse information environment. There have been dramatic changes associated with the IT, and these changes create ethical problems and upheavals that usually have something to do with ethics. True, there has been technological development in the arena—one that occurs â€Å"when either the technological paradigm is elaborated in terms of improved concepts, theories, and methods, or in instances of the paradigm are improved† (Moor, 2008, p. 27), such as in terms of efficiency, effectiveness, and safety. This creates an enormous social impact, and it has led to a technological revolution that considerably takes time and is difficult to predict. Information technology has gone over the introduction stage and the permeation stage. We are on the power stage wherein the technology is readily available, affecting people directly and indirectly. This creates an impact that is superbly enormous; yet, there are always the ethical problems that springs forth in the arena. Ethical problems that surround the self-identity, anonymity, and privacy of a person are always attached when it comes to IT. The technological revolution has a large-scale effect that transforms the society, while affecting the manner in which the society functions (Moor, 2008, p. 29). It is evident that open technological revolutions in open societies still need some enhancements, so that the ethical problems would be controlled and maximized. Main Body There are a number of important issues that surround the technological paradigm of IT, especially in relation to ethics. Some of these are in the form of self-identity, anonymity, as well as privacy. There are also other unethical issues (e. g. , cheating, hacking, wardriving) that are attached to the technological paradigm of IT. Ethical problems in self-identity The self-identity is being constructed according to how the individual interacts with the society and with himself or herself. In the social landscape of modernity, there are numerous major changes in the external social environment that affects the individual during this social transformation. In the age of the IT, people get to have the capacity to reconstruct the universe through the everyday realities and circumstances that take place in their specific worlds. It is a continuous state of affairs that largely creates the self-identity and the personal feelings attached to this paradigm. This new sense of identity are being formed with the intrusion of the IT in a person’s life, and people get to have personal relationship even with people who are unknown to them—people who suddenly pop out in their computer’s screens, with names that may or may not be factual. Personal relationships help form the self-identity, offering opportunities for self-expression and the self-renewal. According to Giddens (1991), The modern world is a ‘runaway world’: not only is the pace of social change much faster than in any prior system, so also is its scope, and the profoundness with which it affects pre-existing social practices and modes of behavior. (Giddens, 1991, p. 16) With this, it is apparent that the IT becomes an active component in the continuous transformation of a person’s identity, as it creates and affects the social practices and the modes of a person’s behavior. Thus, problems that affect the personal life of the individual could affect not only the self-identity, but the social practices and the environment as a whole. Ethical problems in terms of anonymity and privacy, for example, can lead to an identity that is blemished because of unethical conduct. Despite the fact that people always carry discursive interpretations of their behavior, this practical consciousness drives the person into creating or destroying the ontological security of human activity in a culture. As an effect, people tend to write comments anonymously while hiding their true identities. Ethical problems in anonymity According to the article that Richard Perez-Pena (2010) wrote entitled ‘News Sites Rethink Anonymous Online Comments’, it says that Internet users usually make use of the digital disguise, revealing their power and their sentiments without acknowledging their true identities to the viewers. This constitutes a sort of freedom for the digital users, and this is most typical in news sites, wherein the viewers are allowed to post comments without indicating their true identities, keeping their privacy in a world that is being presented in public. As indicated in the article, â€Å"Anyone could weigh in and remain anonymous† (Perez-Pena, 2010, p. 1), and this leads to the question on whether or not viewers of Internet sites should be allowed to remain anonymous when dictating their comments and suggestions. This is a very significant ethical problem associated to IT, since it has been ethically accepted that any type of idea or sentiment should be associated to the respectful person who has formed the idea. According to Arianna Huffington, founder of The Huffington Post, Anonymity is just the way things are done. It’s an accepted part of the Internet, but there’s no question that people hide behind anonymity to make vile or controversial comments. (Perez-Pena, 2010, p. 1) It has, therefore, been advised that viewers should indicate their factual names, especially when making a significant commentary about the society. They should use their real names, and this may be done by requiring people to register first before posting their commentaries. Ethical problems in privacy According to the article that Scott Rosenberg (2010) wrote entitled ‘Online Comments Need Moderation, Not Real Names’, there is also the statement that defines how newspaper website managers have been reacting in terms of anonymity and privacy keeping. As stated, â€Å"If only they could make people sign their real names, surely the atmosphere would improve† (Rosenberg, 2010, p. 1). Online conversation spaces make media outlets turn the common software on and then leave them as it is, as if the discussions would â€Å"magically take care of themselves† (Rosenberg, 2010, p. 1). The problem, however, is that the commenters should not be faceless and should carry identities that are open for the other viewers. This problem is in the identity system, with the Web having no identity system that would ethically reconnect the idea to the person who has declared it. As stated in the article, The Web has no identity system, and though the FBI can track you down if the provocation is dire enough, and if you get editors mad enough they can track you down, too, most media companies aren’t going to waste the time and money. (Rosenberg, 2010, p. 1) Ethical privacy problems can also be in the form of ‘hacking’ or â€Å"using unauthorized access to an information system† (Floridi, 2008, p. 43). This indulges privacy and confidentiality. Conclusion There are other ethical problems associated with the IT of the modern social world, such as using the new technology in order to cheat one’s taxes, or deviating the user from his or her true name or identity. It can also be in the form of wardriving wherein people try to connect wirelessly to other people’s networks (Moor, 2008, p. 33). All these unethical conducts can create an enormous social impact that leads to technological revolution that can contract IT in its power stage. With proper management, it can develop the IT into something that is more powerful and enormous, without the ethical problems that have large-scale effects on the society. It is evident, therefore, that open societies through the IT still need some enhancements, so that the ethical problems would be controlled and maximized. References Floridi, L. (2008). Information ethics: its nature and scope. In Eds. Jeroen van den Hoven and John Weckert’s Information technology and moral philosophy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Moor, J. (2008). Why we need better ethics for emerging technologies. In Eds. Jeroen van den Hoven and John Weckert’s Information technology and moral philosophy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Perez-Pena, R. (2010, April 11). News sites rethink anonymous online comments. Retrieved May 7, 2010, from The New York Times Company database: http://www. nytimes. com/2010/04/12/technology/12comments. html. Rosenberg, S. (2010, April 13). Online comments need moderation, not real names. Retrieved May 7, 2010, from Salon Media Group, Inc. database: http://www. salon. com/news/feature/2010/04/13/newspaper_online_comments_moderation_open2010.

Flannery OConnor Essay -- essays papers

Flannery O'Connor Flannery O’Connor and the Relationship Between Two of Her Stories Flannery O’Connor was born Mary Flannery O’Connor on March 25, 1925 in Savannah, Georgia, as the only child to Edward F. O’Connor, Jr., and Regina (Cline) O’Connor. Later in 1941, Flannery O’Connor’s father dies of lupus while O’Connor is in Milledgeville, Ga. After her father’s death, O’Connor rarely speaks of him and continues to be active in school projects such as drawing, reading, writing, and playing instraments. Further, in the summer of 1942, O’Connor graduates and enters Georgia State College for Women as a sociology and English major. Moreover, O’Connor took on the name Flannery O’Connor, dropping Mary from her signature. When O’Connor graduates from college, she leaves for Iowa City and applies for several college teaching positions while attending the University of Iowa. Thus, she receives her Masters of Fine Arts in 1947. Although her first story, â€Å"The Geranium † was publised in Accent, during the summer of 1946, it was only the beginning of many of her works to be published. Like her father, O’Connor was living with lupus and her first major attack came in December, 1950. However, O’Connor did not allow the disease to keep her from writing and getting her works published. In fact, she got her nineth story , â€Å"A Good Man Is Hard to Find† published. Also, O’Connor has won many prizes and awards with her writings over the years. For instance, she was named the Honorary Doctor of Letters by institutions, was the first prize of the O. Henry award in 1957 and 1963 and had previously won second in 1954 and 1955. Moreover, O’Connor died on August 3, 1964 I a Milledgeville hospital. Nevertheless, her stories cont... ...g from these two stories, she uses the same style in the majority of her works. More specifically, O’Connor uses a lot of foreshadowing and irony, leading up to the catastrophe. Also, her subject matter is somewhat controversial since the settings of the two stories are in the South, she uses southern dialect and religion, and most of all, they have the strangest endings. Perhaps the greatest story she has to tell is not her forte, the short story, at all but maybe it’s her own story. Bibliography: Works Cited O’Connor, Flannery. â€Å"A Good Man Is Hard to Find.† Flannery O’Connor: Collected Works. New York, NY: The Library of America, 1988. 137-153. â€Å"Good Country People.† Flannery O’Connor: Collected Works. New York, NY: The Library of America, 198. 263-284. Walters, Dorthy. Flannery O’Connor. Boston: Twayne Publishers, Inc. 1973.

Are teenage girls treated differently than boys?

Teenage girls and boys have long been known for their different interests, tastes, attitudes and past times, but is society now also treating teenage girls in a different manner than the boys. I believe that to be the case, because now through all aspects of their lives teenage girls are being managed different to way the boys are. The story starts at the home; parents seem to be far more protective of their teenage daughters than their sons. I believe this initially stems from the fact that girls do seem to naturally not a powerful physically as boys and that teenage girls are therefore much more at risk from predators than teenage boys and are less able to fend off an overpowering man. Teenage girls also have the ability to get pregnant where as boys do not, for this reason the girls need to be watched and cared for more by their parents by implementing more rules on them in terms of the times they are allowed out until and the people they can associate themselves with. In terms of household chores and responsibility you tend to see that the teenage girl would be helping her mother out in the kitchen, preparing food and washing dishes whereas teenage boys would be seen helping in more physically demanding jobs such as mowing the lawn and taking the bin out. This I believe is because parents, unfortunately, do to seem to give way to societies prejudices not because they want to but because they know it would be best for their daughters to learn how to work and cook in the kitchen for when they would most likely be cooking for their husband in the future. The media has a great influence on teenagers and it is the media that has the greatest ability to create stereotypes and depicts the way of life which everyone should be living but more often or not the media is wrong yet it still manages to pressures on teenagers especially as to how they should act. It is teenage boys though that have seemed to have pulled the short end of the stick in the medias plans and it is them are constantly being portrayed as being violent, dangerous and anti-social. This is unfair treatment to the vast majority of teenage boys who are none of these things. Teenage girls though are depicted in a more positive light; teenage girls in advertisements are more often than not seen to be playing, chatting and laughing with each other normally inside the house while boys are mostly show to been playing aggressive games, building toys or fighting. Teenage girls also get viewed in a much more positive light by the general public as it is them who are always being hailed for their academic achievements, and although tragically, it is teenage girls who are most commonly reported as victims in the news, which leads the public to view them in a much more sympathetic light. Finally teenage girls are given less opportunities in the workplace. Although jobs are obviously quite rare and far between for teenagers now days, we still do see an uneven spread across the genders. This is because those companies ready to employ teenagers will most probably be looking at them as a source of cheap and exploitable labour. The sorts of jobs that are normally available are those which involve manual labour and physical work such as cleaning the floor, taking rubbish out and transferring equipment. These sorts of jobs are most suited towards boys because of their superior physical abilities. Unfortunately this means the teenage girls are often left neglected in the early stages of their working life.

Drama and Play

————————————————- DRAMA Origin of Greek tragedy and comedy Drama, in the western world, begins with ancient Greece, where the two major forms of drama †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. tragedy and comedy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. were an aspect of religious ritual. Greek tragedy is believed to have begun in the sixth century B. C. with Thespis who introduced the first actor on the stage. The first dramatic dialogue lies in the conversation of this actor with leader of the satiric chorus. The dramatic element was subsequently added by Aeschylus in the fifth century B. C. and later by Sophocles of the same period.They added a second and third actor on the stage respectively. Euripides, a contemporary of Sophocles, used drama as a medium for dealing with the problems of human existence. As the Greek drama developed, the chorus was detached from the main action. Of these ancient Geek trage dies, thirty-two plays are now extant †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. Greek comedy originated from the humorous side of the Dionysian rites. A actual feature was the singing procession, or comos. Their song along with a kind of mummery or play-acting developed into comedy. Greek comedy passed through three stages †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. The Old comedy was the comedy of political and personal satire. The satirical plays of Aristophanes were directed against Euripides. The Middle comedy was a transition from this to the comedy of social life and manners. The satire became impersonal. In the New Comedy, the love intrigue became the dominant theme. The best known writer of the New Comedy was Menander who died in the third century B. C. His plays are now extant in Latin translations by Plautus and Terence. Drama and in Rome The Romans wrote comedies and tragedies in the manner laid down by the Greeks.The characters were mostly stock figures like the comic slave, the braggart soldier, the proud cook, the young lover, the hunch-back, the cuckold and so on. The outstanding writers were Plautus (200 B. C. ) and Terence (150 B. C. ). Twenty plays of Plautus are now extant, including the â€Å"Menaechmi†, from which Shakespeare took the plot for â€Å"The Two Gentlemen of Verona†. Only six plays of Terence are extant. The most important writer of Roman tragedy was Seneca, who was a statesman and philosopher in the Stoic School. His ten plays are translated into English during the Elizabethan period. Drama in EnglandLike other countries, the drama in England had its origin in the services of the church. In the Middle Ages, the services of the church used to be in Latin, and the Bible was therefore, beyond the comprehension of the common people. The clergymen started illustrating Biblical stories by dump shows in order to bring the religious doctrines within the comprehension of the laym en. They were enacted within the church and the actors were all clergymen and monks. In due course, dialogue, first in Latin, then in the vernacular, was introduced and thus the ritualistic representations in the church developed into full-fledged drama.Subsequently the place inside the church was found inadequate and so the representations were transferred to the churchyards. When this also proved insufficient, the drama passed from the church to the street, from the clergymen to the laymen. The mystery and miracle plays The Mystery and Miracle plays mark an advancement in the development of the medieval religious drama. The Mysteries dealt with themes taken from the Bible, whereas Miracle plays dealt with the lives of saints. The institution of the festival of Corpus Christi by Pope Urban IV in 1264 gave an impetus to the growth of these plays.Until the thirteenth century Miracle plays were annually performed at several important towns like Chester, York, Coventry, and Lancaster. Curiously enough, these religious plays combined serious theme with farce, buffoonery, and coarse humour. Devil and Vice were depicted in a funny manner. The Devil was represented as a hideous monster, hairy and shaggy with horns, hoofs and a tail. Vice appeared in a fantastic, variegated dress carrying a wooden dagger and indulging in mad tumultuous pranks and jokes. He continued to have a comic role in English drama for long.This sort of medieval religious drama reached its highest point of development in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The â€Å"cycles† presenting a series of plays containing a story of the creation of the world were popular in England in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. Of these, four cycles †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Chester comprising twenty-five plays, York comprising forty-eight plays, Wakefield comprising thirty-five plays, and Coventry comprising forty-two †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ have been preserved. Monks and scholars generally wrote the plays. Their settings were elaborate.Heaven was presented in an awe-inspiring manner while Hell was presented as a dragon’s mouth. Theatrical effects were obtained by several devices as trap doors, pulleys, and the beating of drums. The aim of these was to instruct an entertain people. The Moralities and Interludes The end of the fifteenth century witnessed a parting between the serious and comic elements in these plays. The serious part of the story was treated separately in plays called â€Å"Morality Plays†. The comic or the lighter side was presented in â€Å"Interludes†.In the Morality Plays religious instruction was substituted by moral teaching and biblical figures were substituted by personified virtues and vices. Mostly the theme was the struggle for a man’s soul. The purpose of these plays was to inculcate virtue by showing the forces of Good and Evil in action. The characters were mostly personifications of abstract qualities like Sin and Repentance. The first known Moralities called â€Å"Paternoster† plays were performed in the latter part of the fourteenth century. It dealt with the conflict between the Seven Moral Virtues and the Seven Deadly Sins.The best Morality play is, however, â€Å"Everyman† published in the early sixteenth century. Humour was kept alive in the character of the Vice, who may be regarded as the forerunner of the Shakespearean clown. The term â€Å"Interlude† is applied to a species of professional performance carried out on special occasions like banqueting. It was used to fill intervals. It marks a definite advance in the art of comedy and forms a bridge of sorts between the Moralities and the Elizabethan drama. The characters were living human beings, and the aim was to amuse and entertain the audience.With the interlude, drama lost its didactic character and became a vehicle of secular entertainment. The most famous interlude is John Heywood’s â€Å"The Four Ps† printed in 1569. The characters in are a Palmer, a Pardoner, a Pothecary and a Pedlar vying with another in telling the biggest lie. The verdict goes in favour of the palmer who stated that of the five hundred women he had known he had never seen one â€Å"out of patience†. The five divisions of the dramatic plot The basic of every dramatic story is conflict. It may take different shapes.It may be between the hero, representing good, and the villain representing evil, it may of the hero against fate or circumstances, or against social conventions and customs. It may also be an inward war as in the case of Macbeth. In any case, a kind of conflict is the central element of the dramatic story. The plot begins with the opening of this conflict and ends with its conclusion. If we sympathise with the struggler, the play is a tragedy, and if laugh at him, it is a comedy. The theme of the play passes through five stages. They are exposition, complication, climax, denou ement, and catastrophe.This is called â€Å"the dramatic line†. Perhaps this five-fold structure of dramatic story accounts for the common division of play into five acts. The Exposition introduces the circumstances or situation from which the initial incident is to begin. Its aim is to give all the information necessary for the audience to understand the play. This is not an easy part of the play and its management may be regarded as a real test of a dramatist’s skill. Mrs. Stowe admits in her book â€Å"The Minister’s Wooing†, †When one has a story to tell, one is always puzzled which end of it to begin with.You have a whole corps of people to introduce what you know and your reader does not; and one thing so presupposes another that whichever way you turn your patchwork, the figures seem ill-arranged†. This is the experience of a novelist who can recourse to direct narrative and explanation. We can, then presume the difficulty of a dramatis t who is denied such privileges. The least dramatic among the methods adopted by the dramatists is that of speech given by one of the characters, or a prologue. An example is the dialogue in the Second Scene of Shakespeare’s â€Å"The Tempest†. A good exposition takes the form of a dialogue which is natural nd appropriate. It is brief, clear and dramatic. The first portion of the play after the initial incident comprises the Complication or the Rising Action or the Growth of the conflict towards the crisis. It should be characterised by clearness and logical consistency. Every incident should appear natural, and nothing that is essential should be obscured by unimportant details. The proper relation between character and action should be maintained. Every scene should have its role in the development of the plot or add to our knowledge about the characters should be indicated.If the conflict is between two persons, both the characters should be made familiar to the aud ience, and if it is within the mind of the hero, hiss qualities and conduct should be presented carefully. The foundation for the following action should be thus laid. In climax or Crisis, the story reaches a point at which the balance begins to learn decisively to one or the other side. This is therefore known ass the turning point also. The treatment of the crisis may vary according to the circumstances. It may consist of a single incident or a group of incidents.Generally the crisis is placed about the middle of the action, tin Shakespeare’s plays, it is generally towards the close of the third act or the beginning of the fourth act. In â€Å"Macbeth†, the Banquet scene, which comprises the crisis, occurs In Act III. After the appearance of Banquo’s ghost and the escape of Fleance, Macbeth’s fortunes are reversed. The dramatist should be careful that the event which determines the whole course of the action to its catastrophe comes out of the action it self and is not superimposed from outside.The crisis over, we enter upon the denouement which is the falling action. In comedy it implies the removal of the obstacles or the clearing away of the misunderstanding which has hitherto been hindering the good fortune of the hero and the heroine. In tragedy it lies in the removal of those resisting powers which have been holding the powers of evil in check. In any case, our uncertainty and suspense come to an end and we rejoice in the happiness of the hero and the heroine or sympathise with them. The denouement presents to the dramatist the difficulty of maintaining the nterest of the audience after they are able to forsee the fortune of the characters. Small wonder Fielding hated â€Å"the man who invented fifth act†: Oddly enough, in Shakespeare tragedies, our interest continues even after the ending of the play can be clearly foreseen. CatastropheI is the final stage of the plot. The dramatic conflict comes to an end. The play t o an end. The play usually ends with a sense of finality. But in modern plays and novels nothing is concluded and as Tennyson said, we seem to be poised on the crest of a wave which does not break.This inconclusiveness is supported by those who favour realism, for, in life, they say, there is no such things as an â€Å"end† yet we must bear in mind that drama is a series of incidents selected for dramatic treatment. Audience demand a story in which no loose threads are left. The dramatist has to make the catastrophe the natural outcome of the forces which have been at work in the play. Aristotle recommended that the unraveling of the plot must arise out of the plot itself, and must never be brought about by a dues exmachina.Though modern dramatists do not resort to a â€Å"God out of the machine† they employ such means as he timely removal of the villain by an accident, or the turning up of a will, or the discovery of a birthmark or something that reveals the real iden tity of the hero, or the unexpected arrival of an uncle long reported to be dead and so on. More common is the sudden change of heart of one of the characters to make the story end happily. The dramatist who employs such contrivances in a comedy may not do so when writing a tragedy. The reason is not far to seek. In comedy life is treated in a light and superficial manner..Criticism of life in the drama The drama is different from novel in being objective. The novel permits the writer to intrude often to express his interpretation of life. He can do it directly or indirectly while the dramatist is forced to confine himself to the indirect method alone. According to Henry James, an novel is a personal impression representation of life. It is not, therefore, easy to detect in a play, the writer’s philosophy of life. The dramatist throws on our shoulders the entire responsibility of finding his meaning and even explaining what he has merely implied. But occasionally the dramatis t escapes from the estraints imposed on him by making one of the characters in the play represent him. The Chorus of the Greek tragedies was thus a representative of the dramatist. He is often the mouthpiece of the dramatist’s philosophy of life. The modern dramatist no longer makes use of such a device. The main function of the chorus was to report the events that took place off stage and to make some comments on the morality of the actions presented on the stage. In modern plays, its place is often taken by one of the characters in the drama. Thus Enobarbus in Shakespeare’s â€Å"Antony and Cleopatra† is a kind of chorus.With his critical comments he serves to bring out the cause of Antony’s degeneration uner the spell of the â€Å"Serpent of old Nile†. In modern problem plays, we often come across a character whose principal function in the play is merely to move through it as a philosopher spectator. He expounds moral problems on behalf of the writer. The French critics call him â€Å"raisonneur†. But it is not always right to identify an out-spoken character with the dramatist. For instance some commentators hhave made the mistake of discovering in the melancholy Jacques in â€Å"As You Like It† the representative of Shakespeare.But Shakespeare makes all the other characters in the play laugh at him which indicates that he does not express Shakespeare’s views. The dramatist may very often find the Chorus –like character or the â€Å"raisonneur† inadequate to express his views on life. He often makes his view clear to the audience through the utterances of the various characters. Even while speaking in accordance with their personalities and situations, they may express the writer’s ideas about me and things. We can thus gain a clear idea of Shakespeare’s ideas and judgements from the utterances of his characters.The difficulty lies in discriminating the particular moments when they express the dramatist’s views. Canon Beeching holds the opinion that the sentiments put into the mouth of these characters with whom we are expected to sympathise invariably express the writer’s views. But we notice that even the characters unable to arouse our sympathy may sometimes express moral truths, defined by them on earlier occasions. For instance, when Edgar says at the end of â€Å"King Lear†, â€Å"The Gods are just and of our pleasant vices make instruments to plague us†,Edmund, the villain replies, â€Å"Thou hast spoken right; ‘tis true; the wheel has come full circle; I am here†. Shakespeare’s commentary upon the plot is provided more by Edmund than Edgar on this occasion. We should ,therefore, be careful in examining the sentiments expressed by the various characters in a play. In conclusion, we can say without any shadow of doubt that dramatist’s criticism of life is embodied in the whole spirit of the play. The world that the dramatist creates, with all men and women, their actions, passions and motives, their struggles followed by success or failure, is a world for which the dramatist lone is responsible.It goes without saying then that it is a projection of his own personality. The whole play, therefore, reveals the temper of his mind, the way in which he looks upon things, the line of hs thoughts, his interests, and his attitude towards life. Characterisation in Drama One of the differences between drama and novel lies in the exposition of character. Usually it is thought that drama is concerned with action and, therefore, characterisation is a secondary matter in it. According to Mr. Henry Arthur Jones, â€Å"The first demand of an average theatrical audience is always the same as the child’s †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Tell me a story†.But story in a drama is childish and unintellectual unless it is related to character. If the story is nothing more than a successio n of incidents, it is not much different from the adventures of a highway man. The story in a play should display the various aspects of human nature. As Hudson says, â€Å"Characterisation is the rally fundamental and lasting element in the greatness of any dramatic work†. This is illustrated best by Shakespeare’s plays. Centuries have passed since Shakespeare wrote them, but we are still interested in them, and our interest is by no means less than that of the Elizabethan audience.What keeps our interest alive are the men and women in them. The essential quality of â€Å"Macbeth† lies not in the murders Macbeth commits, but in the character of Macbeth. Even lago, the villain, can hold us spellbound with his villainous schemes, originated in his brain. â€Å"Hamlet† is nothing more than a revenge play when we consider its plot, but none of these revenge plays that hooked the Elizabethan audience can appeal to us now as â€Å"Hamlet† does. Shakespe are has worked miracle out of that raw material by developing the psychological element in it, and that accounts for the immortal appeal of â€Å"Hamlet†.The first condition in characterization in a lay is brevity. The dramatist has to portray the motive and conduct of a person within a few scenes. Since characterization and action cannot be divorced in a play, and the progress of the story has to be kept up, the task of the dramatist is not easy. This can well be illustrated with Shakespeare’s delineation of Macbeth. In the first act, the dramatist gives us an account of Macbeth’s courage on the battlefield, the evil fermenting in him, the confidence that others, including King Duncan, had in him, and above all, his superstitious nature.The essential qualities of Lady Macbeth are also portrayed with equal precision. Her moral courage, her singleness of purpose, her influence over her husband’s sensitive nature are all laid before us in the first act itse lf. Yet Shakespeare has allotted to Lady Macbeth less than sixty speeches in the whole play, and Macbeth speaks about 150 times, and none of the speeches is long. â€Å"Macbeth† thus illustrates Shakespeare’s skill in characterization. Concentration is another necessary condition in characterization in plays. The main qualities of a character should be emphasized.Every word of the dialogue may be used for this purpose, and supererogatory talk may be avoided. A dramatist sometimes commits the mistake of being absorbed in the development of the character to such an extent that those qualities which do not influence the action may also be mentioned. This is called over characterisation , characterisation in accused Shakespeare of this tendency.. Impersonality is another necessary condition in characteriisation. Unlike the novelist, the dramatist has to spend apart from his characters.He cannot take them to pieces and lay their soul bare before us or pass judgement upon th em. The plot and the utterance of the characters are the only means by which the dramatist can reveal his men, and women, their thoughts, their motives and passions. The dramatist, therefore, makes use of movement of the story, then crises and situations in it to display the intellectual and moral qualities of his characters. In the words of Hudson, â€Å"We know them by what they do, as the tree is known by its fruit†. In a good play, as in a good novel plot rests upon character.A number of men and momen of different dispositions, motivated by different passions asr brought together and the clash of their interests constitutes the plot. The evacuation of the story then reveals thir dispositions, their motives and passions. Dialogue plays an important role in characterization. The characters exhibit their passion and motives, feelings and conflicts in their utterances. When the interest of the drama is psychological, the plot concerns itself rather with the play of the forces behind action, and then dialogue becomes an adjunct to action or an integral part of it.Dramatic dialogue as a means of characterization can be classified under two heads. They are utterances of a given person and the remarks made about him by the other characters in the play. In the words of modern psychological playwrights like Ibsen, the utterances of the given person serves the purpose. Shakespeare generally reveals the fundamental qualities of his characters as soon and as clearly as possible. Though self-portrayal is the principal means of characterization by dialogue, the comments made by others about a person may be add to it. It is not correct to take every work uttered by a character as an indication of his nature.His situation, his sympathy, antipathy and similar aspects should be taken into consideration. Occasional phrases uttered by a man can never be a reliable guidance to his character unless they are reinforced by various other utterances scattered through the play . Shakespeare uses this method in his â€Å"The Merchant of Venice†. Antonio is praised lavishly by all the other characters in the play. Salanio speaks of him as â€Å"the good Antonio†, Lorenzo refers to him as a â€Å"true gentlemen†, Gratiano loves him abundantly, and the gaoler grants him special privileges.The same method is employed in revealing the character of Brutus inn â€Å"Julius Caeser† too. Soliloquy, which is a minor subdivision of â€Å"aside† is another means employed by the dramatists to take his audience down into the hidden recesses of a person’s nature. Certain aspects of a man’s character cannot be revealed in his action or his own word. Neither can the dramatist dissect his men and women as the novelist does. He, therefore, makes the characters themselves do ht work of dissextion, for we cannot understand them well unless we know the workings of their mind.They think aloud, and we overhear what they say. A man, especially a villain, cannot disclose his design to a confidant, and in such a case, he is allowed to reason then imagine, not that the man is talking to himself or to us, but only thinking, and that we are concealed spectators of his thoughts. Modern critics however, condemn the use of Soliloquy, especially in realistic plays,. It is now regarded not only as clumsy, but also as non-dramatic, and the play that contains it is stigmatized as â€Å"old-fashioned†.Modern critics accept the confidant, but also on condition that he has an essential part in the action. The different types of drama Drama has been divided broadly into two categories †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Tragedy and Comedy, the former dealing with adversity and unhappiness, and the latter dealing with joy and mirth. Aristotle in his â€Å"poetics† defined tragedy as â€Å"artistic imitation of an action that is serious, complete in itself, and of adequate magnitude†. He gave importance to suffering or rather, â€Å"an incident of a destructive or painful sort, such as violent death or physical agony†.In order to evoke pity, he recommended a hero neither too good nor wholly vicious, but â€Å"brought low through some error of judgement or shortcoming† known as â€Å"hamartia† or tragic flaw. It existed within the character of the hero, but inn modern plays, the tragic law exists in the milieu more than in the hero who merely becomes a victim of external circumstances. The effect of tragedy, according to Aristotle, is to arouse the emotions of pity and fear in such a way as to effect that special purging and relief known as â€Å"catharsis†. It can be brought about by proper constructions of the plot, which must have a beginning, a middle and an end.Pity and fear are aroused not merely by the complete action but by salient incidents in the plot. Tragedy can be divided in the basis of form and content. From the point of view of form or structure, it is di vided into the classical and the romantic tragedy. The former is based on Greek conventions, and the latter follows it own rules. One of the main features of the classical tragedy is the Chorus. It is consisted of a band of singers and dancers. In Greek tragedy the men and the women forming the Chorus belonged to a lower social rank than the chief characters.Its main function was to report the events that occurred off stage and to make some comments from time to time. In the preface to â€Å"Merope†, Mattew Arnold explains the function of the chorus as to collect and weigh the impression which the action would at each stage make on a pious, thoughtful mind. It deepened the feeling aroused in the spectacular by reminding him of the past, and by indicating what was to come. To combine, to harmonize and to deepen the feelings excited in the audience by sight of the play was the function of the chorus.Its importance dwindled as Greek drama developed. In Aeschylus, it takes part i n the action, but in Sophocles, it becomes a mere commentator, and in Euripides, it is a lyric element. The Elizabethan dramatists in England reduced it to a single speaker, unrelated rest of the characters, who spoke the prologue or occasional interpretations of the plot. In modern plays it is rarely used as in Eliot’s â€Å"Murder in the Cathredal†. The Three Unities is another feature of the classical tragedy. The theory of unities was first propounded by Aristotle a Greek philosopher of the fourth century B.C. They are of time, action, and place. Actually Aristotle mentioned only two †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Unity of time and unity of action. The unity of place was implied in the first, by the unity of action he meant that the story should be the imitation of one action, and of the whole of this , and that the parts should be so arranged that if any of them is transposed or taken away the whole would become different and change. By the unity of time, mentioned in â⠂¬Å"Poetics 5 â€Å"he meant that tragedy should confine itself to ne revolution of the sun, or slightly exceed the limit.His statement (â€Å"Poetics 17†) that, as contrasted with epic, tragic episodes are short and (â€Å"Poetics 26†) confined in less extended limits †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ crowded into a narrow compass, is the nearest he comes to any utterance regarding Unity of place. In short, Aristotle’s requirements were interpreted to mean that the action of the play should be a unified whole, the time should be limited to twenty-four hours, and the scene should be unchanged, or it should at least remain within the limits of a single city.According to some, Aristotle, insisted on the unity of action only, and the other two unities were added by critics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They argued that verisimilitude †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ an illusion of reality †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ could be achieved only by the observance of the three unities. In England romantic tendencies were stronger than academic precepts and therefore, the playwrights violated the theory of the unities came from Dr. Johnson who defended the romantic playwrights for following laws of nature rather than those of art imposed by the critics.It is universally admitted that more than Sophocles and Aeschylus, Seneca, the Roman dramatist, influenced the tragic writers of the renaissance in England. It happened so on account of the melodramatic elements in his plays and because he wrote in Latin which was treasured more than Greek then. His understanding of the working of human emotions commended itself to he Elizabethan playwrights in England. Moreover, Seneca showed in his plays a moral tone and system of philosophy popular in England. The moral purpose and the rhetorical methods of Senecan play appealed to them.While Aeschylus, Sophoclus, and Aristotle believed that man had some chance for happiness. , Seneca showed that man was sure to be beaten. But he introduced a stoical remedy that appealed to the Elizabethan dramatists. Senecan plays were immersed in honours, epigrammatial moralizing and stichomuthia or line repartee. The Senecan tradition also associated with supernatural arents like ghosts. Kyd’s â€Å"Spanish Tragedy†, and Shakespeare’s â€Å"Hamlet† and â€Å"Macbeth† show Senecan influence. The Neo-classical tragedy departed from the Senecan model in two points. They were the introduction of romantic love and the dropping out of chorus.The ancient playwrights held the opinion that the introduction of romantic love would mar the dignity of the hero and the high seriousness of the narrative. The Neo-classicists, however, trudged in the footsteps of the classicist in observing the Three Unities rigorously, and in making the drama basically narrative. Nearly everything, especially of a violent character, happens, in a neo-classical theory, off the stage and is narrated to the audience. The n eo-classicists as well as the romantic dramatists dealt with great legends of the past and were in this respect not different from classicist.The chief characters were all majesty, far above the ordinary human beings. The dialogues were stately, devoid of homely phrases, and mostly poetic. No attempt was made by the neo-classicists to mirror ordinary life. The romantic plays, though dealing with aristocratic character, were different in the method of treatment. The tragic hero is placed in a common world, among ordinary people. The dialogue had many touches of familiarity and even colloquialism. Realistic details like King Lear’s famous, â€Å"Pray you, undo this button† abound. Thus the romantic tragedy was a combination of the idealistic and realistic elements.To the romantic dramatists, unity of action meant not a single action, but organic connection among the various action presented in the play. Subplots, like the comic plot in Shakespeare’s â€Å"The Tem pest† were introduced, provided the two plots were independent. Moreover, the romantic drama is, unlike the neo-classical plays, a drama of action. Nearly, everything happens in the stage. Duels are fought, murders and suicides committed, and battles waged in full view of the spectators. The play of Shakespeare and his contemporaries thus satisfied the appetite of the Elizabethan audience for the action.The romantic dramatists differed from the neo-classicists in their attitude towards the theory of unities too. They ignored the unity of time and place. Even Shakespeare moved his scenes from town to town, and from country to country, and described the events of many years. Tragic comedy is a new form of play. The classical dramatists never allowed any comic element to enter their tragedies though they allowed serious element in their comedies. But the romantic playwrights disregarded this line of demarcation between tragedies and comedies. They freely mingled tragic and comic scenes in their plays.Addison calls it â€Å"One of the monstrous inventions that ever entered into a poet’s thought†. Dyrden agreed with him by commenting, â€Å"There is no theatre in the world which has nothing so absurd as English tragic-comedy†. Though considered a non-Aristotlean form, the trig-comedy was successful. Shakespeare’s â€Å"The Merchant of Venice† is an example for it. The important characters in tragi-comedies were drawn from both the high class and the low class. A serious action is introduced as threatening the protagonist who, by a sudden change of fortune, escapes and the play ends happily.The term â€Å"tragic-comedy† is sometimes applied to play with double plots, one serious and the other comic. On the basis of content, tragedy may be divided into various types. One of them is the horror tragedy, developed in England in the early part of seventeenth century by Ford and Wesbter. The appeal to the audience is made in these plays, not by characters, but by incidents. The aim of the writers who wrote horror tragedies was stage sensationalism. The inner struggle in these tragedies depends upon external events. Horror from situation dominates these plays. An example is â€Å"The Duchess of Malfi†.The Heroic tragedy was cultivated during the Restoration Period by a number of dramatists, the prominent among whom are Dryden and Otway. The subjects of these plays were love and valour and the themes were developed to epic magnitude. An air of exaggeration prevailed in them. Dryden himself said, â€Å"Heroic play is the representation of nature wrought up to a high pitch†. The scenes in them were laid in distant countries like Peru, India and Mexico. The characters were men of superhuman power and women of immortal beauty and unattainable virtue. The speeches were magnificent, marked by a declamatory style.The heroic meter, instead of blank verse, was employed in them. Its Artistic beauty a nd effect were marred by its artificially and exaggeration. Domestic tragedy was a type of play written in the eighteenth century. The term is also applied to some of Ibsen’s plays and some Elizabethan tragedies like† A Woman Killed with Kindness†. It is a serious play, realistic in style with its hero drawn from the low or middle class and its action concerned with personal or domestic matters. The domestic tragedies were written mostly in prose. They were devoid of emotional force and was based on pity and sympathy.An example is Lillo’s â€Å"The London Merchant†. Comedy, according to Aristotle, deals with â€Å" some defect or ugliness that is painful or destructive†. The characters, mostly from low classes were drawn from observation and experience. The writers were often satirical and the characters became caricatures of actual human beings. The plots were less complicated than those of tragedy. Misunderstandings and mistaken identities p layed a prominent role in them. Yet a good comedy can penetrate deeply into the roots of the human nature, and make the audience aware of man’s limitations.Aristotle believed that the play is rendered comic by making the characters in it worse than they are, thereby making them objects of merriments. Ben Johnson also believed that whatever is awry in men provokes laughter. A number of critics from Kaunt to Hazlitt have found that the source of laughter is incongruity. In sidney’s opinion also, â€Å"Laughter almost ever cometh of things most disproportioned to ourselves and nature†. Allardyce Nicoll traces the source oof laughter to a desire for liberation from the restraints of society.It goes contrary to Bergson’s view that the source is automatism which implies that the conditions of comedy are unsociability on the part of the object of laughter. The first regular drama in English in the form of a comedy was â€Å"Ralph Roister Doister† written by Nicholas Udall in 1550 or so. The writer seems to have been influenced much by Latin comedies of Plautus and Terence. The second English comedy was â€Å"Grammer Gurton’s Needle† of doubtful authorship performed at Christ’s college in Cambridge in 1552. Both these comedies had the classical division into five acts, and the action was limited to a single day and a single locality.On the basis of form, the comedy may be divided into classical and romantic comedies, which differ from each other in the same manner the two types of tragedies do. On the basis of content, comedy may be divided into various types. The comedy of Humours was written chiefly by Ben Johnson who used the term â€Å"humours† in the medieval sense in which it reffered to the four fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile in the human body. According to the theories of humours, a person’s physical, mental and moral conditions are determined by the state of his humours.A n imbalance in their proportion affected the behaviour of the person, and a perfect balance created an ideal man. The dramatists who adopted this theory designed â€Å"humourous† characters, whose behavior was determined by a single humour. Ben johnson’s â€Å"Every Man in His Humour†is the earliest play written in this way in 1598. Shakespeare has introduced â€Å"humourous† characters like the melancholy Jacques in â€Å"As You like it†. Johnson drew comedy down to real life, using it to present the follies of contemporary London. The comedy of humours disregarded humour as the term is used now.It depended on wit and satire. The comedy of Manners developed in the Restoration period. The writer were influenced by the French dramatist Moliere and the Spanish dramatist Claderson. It is realistic in nature, and concentrated on the activities, intrigues and amorous achievements of gay, frivolous men and women who used to meet in cafes, chocolate house s, clubs and gambling centres in London. Reputations were murdered and Clandestine love affairs were carried out by them. A lot of senseless prattle went on with scandal mongering in the air.This degraded life of the aristocratic classes of the day is presented in these comedies. Satire was an integral part of these comedies. It was the satire at the follies of those who strive to enter the elegant circle by plotting against their rivals and competitions in love. Besides satire, it made use of wit which is seen in the repartees that abound in these plays. It has been critised for its obscenity and immorality. The Genteel Comedy was developed by Colley Cibber in the middle of the eighteenth century. His â€Å"The Careless Husband† is regarded as the first genteel comedy in English.The term was first used by Addison for the type of comedy that portrays more artificial life than the comedy of manners. Affectations ruled the life of the upper class society then, and these affecta tions are presented in humorous manner in these comedies. Laughter arises not out of the playful fancies of intellectual men, but ou of the affectations of the high class society. The Comedy of Intrigue came into inception in the days of Fletcher and continued to be popular till the end of the eighteenth century. In this type of comedy laughter arises out of the disguises and the intrigues and complications of the plot.An important writer of this type of comedy is Fletcher. The play captures our attention with a series of situations leading to innumerable mistakes and amusing denouements. There is little wit, no humour, no satire, but there are several comic situations. Its laughter depends on external sources, and it provides little intellectual mirth. The Sentimental Comedy of the eighteenth century was a reaction against the comedy of manners of the Restoration period. The sentimental comedy was opposed to the light-hearted fun in the comedy of manners.In fact, it is opposed to t he spirit of comedy itself. Humour is driven out of it, and as Allardyce Nicoll says, it presented tears in place of laughter. The place of humour was taken by pathos. Wit or brilliance had no place in this type of comedy. The writer aimed at moral edification, for they felt that the taste of the readers had been degraded by obscenity and vulgarity depicted in the comedy of manners. Distressed middle class characters were presented in these comedies to evoke sympathy. The principal writers of this type of comedy were Richard Steele, Huge Kelly and Cumberland.It developed not only on account of the theatrical and social changes of the time, but also because the rising middle class demanded a different type of comedy. The sentimental comedies provided moral lectures and lacked emotional appeal. Hazlitt aptly says, â€Å"It is almost a misnormer to call them comedies; they are rather homilies in dialogue†. The One Act Play The origin of the one-act play can be traced back to the short farces that flourished in Italy from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries and the miracle and mystery plays of became a curtain-raiser. In 1903 when W. W.Jacob’s play â€Å"The Monkey’s Paw† was acted as a curtain-raiser, it appealed to the audience so much that most of the people left the theatre when the curtain descended upon this play became a series rival to the long play. The one-act play may be tragic as in Synge’s â€Å"Riders to the Sea†, it can be didactic as Willis Hall’s â€Å"The Day’s beginning†, it can be comic and satirical Houghton’s â€Å"The Dear Departed†, or oit can be a fantasy like Lord Dunsany’s ‘The Golden Doom†. It can be farcial too Arnold Bennet’s â€Å"The Stepmother†, or melodramatic like ‘The Monkey’s Paw†. It can be written in verse like Christopher Fry’s â€Å"A Phoenix too Frequent†.The outstanding cha racteristic of the one-act play is that it turns upon a single idea or situation, presenting a single mood or single aspect of character, though it presents a conflict like long plays. A few characters are introduced and the interest is concentrated on a single dominant character in whom a single trait is revealed in a flash. Dialogues are short, and the dramatist cannot unities of action, time and place are observed. It has an immense future because modern people have less time and inclination for long plays, it is cheaper to produce, and can be performed by amateurs.Above all, the growth of radio and television has made it popular. The importance of the opening scene of the play The Exposition as given in the essay on drama. Soliloquy and the Aside The aside like the soliloquy indicates that dialogue is not the only substitute for the dramatist for direct analysis and commentary of the novelist. Soliloquy is a convention by which a character, alone on the stage, utters his thought s aloud. The audience is thus provided with the information necessary to understand the character’s motives and the state of mind.Aside is another similar stage device in which a character, not necessarily alone on the stage, expresses his thoughts in a short speech which is supposed to inaudible to the other characters on the stage. Both these conventions, prevalent in the Elizabethan and later drama, were adopted by the dramatist to take the audience down into hidden recesses of a person’s nature. The dramatist, being denied the privilege o dissect his characters as the novelist does, has to resort to such means to enable the audience and readers to understand his characters well.In soliloquy and aside the characters are not supposed to be speaking to us or to themselves, but they are merely thinking aloud. The conventions, however, fell into disuse in the nineteenth century when realism was insisted upon. Melodrama â€Å"Melos† is a Greek term meaning â€Å" song†, and the term melodrama wass, therefore, applied to musical accompaniment was a characteristic of most of the plays, because â€Å"legitimate† plays were permitted only in the Drury Lane and Covent Garden theatres while musical entertainment had no such restrictions at all. In melodrama the hero and heroine were embodiments of virtue, and the villain was a monster of evil.The plot was centered round intrigues and violent effect and emotional excitement. Now the term â€Å"melodrama† is applied to any work that contains improbable events and sensational actions. Tragic Flaw / Hamartia In Aristotle’s view, tragedy should evoke pity. To do so he recommended a hero neither superlatively good and just or wholly vivious and depraved. He brought to misery through some mistaken act caused by an error in his judgement or some shortcoming in his nature. This error of judgement is called â€Å"hamartia† or â€Å"tragic flaw†. It exists within the character and causes the tragedy.In Greek tragedies a common form of hamartia was pride which tempts a man to disregard divine power. It moves us to pity because the hero is not an essentially evil man, and his misfortune is far more than what he deserves. In modern social drama the tragic flaw often exists in the milieu, and the hero becomes a victim of external circumstances. Catharsis â€Å"Catharsis† in Greek signifies â€Å"purgation† or ‘‘purification†. The effect of tragedy, according to Aristotle, is to arouse the emotions of pity and fear in such a way as to effect purging and relief, and this is known as â€Å"catharsis† in tragedy.Recently, Aristotle’s â€Å"Catharsis† has been interpreted as applying not to the effect on the audience, but to an element within the play itself. It then signifies the purgation of the guilt attached to the hero’s tragic act by demonstrating in the course of the drama that the hero p erformed this act without knowledge of its nature. Aristotle distinguishes the tragic from comic and other forms by this effect. In any case, he accounts for the extraordinary fact that many tragic representations of suffering, defeat and death leave on the audience a feeling, not of depression, but of relief and exaltation. Comic ReliefComic relief is the relief provided by a spell of fun between two serious scenes or just before a serious incident in a play. It is achieved by the use of a humourous characters and their speeches. This was common in Elizabethan tragedy. They are necessary to provide a sort of relaxation to the audience after witnessing a grave scene or to prepare themselves for a grave incident. Sometimes the comic relief is provided by an intrusive episode or dialogue. It not only alleviates the tension, but also adds variety to the play . in some plays they become an integral part of the play and serve to intensify the tragic note.An example is the â€Å"Porter S cene† in Shakespeare’s â€Å"Macbeth†. Dramatic Irony Dramatic Irony s an utterance by a character in a play when he is ignorant of the real significance of his words. It is a situation in which the audience shares with the author knowledge of something which the speaker in the play is ignorant of. The character acts in a way inappropriate to the circumstances or says something which turns out to be true later though he did not expect such a turn of events. Writers of Greek tragedy, who generally borrowed their plots of this device.For instance, in Sophocles’s â€Å"Oedipus†, the king (Oedipus) hunts for the evil-doer who has brought plague upon Thebes without being aware that the culprit is himself. The English Chronicle plays Chronicle plays are plays for which the source is the Chronicle, or rather, record of events in the chronological order preserved in a king’s court. These historical materials are dramatized into chronicle plays. In En gland, Marlow’s â€Å"Edward II†, and are taken from Holinshed’s â€Å"Chronicles†. They were popular in the Elizabethan period when patriotic fervor rising out of the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 reigned supreme in English society.The early chronicle plays merely presented a series of events during the reign of an English King. The plays were effective on the account of the battles presented on the stage and the pageants and spectacles that accompanied the victory in battle. Marlowe, for the first time selected and rearranged materials from Holinshed Chronicles for his â€Å"Edward II†. The Elizabethan chronicle plays are often called history plays. Parallelism in drama Parallelism and contrast are two elements in the composition of the plot of a play.The central idea of one part of the action reappears in another part of it, and each serves to illustrates and reinforce the other. Shakespeare seems to have been very fond of this stage devi ce, for he often uses it to add to the dramatic interest of the story. However, the best example of parallelism in Shakespearean play is found in â€Å"King Lear†, the two plots of which correspond in every detail. Shakespeare has here worked upon two narratives from two sources. In one story we come across a father deceived in the character of his daughters, ultimately getting real love from the one he had spurned.In the other story, we have a father deceived in the character of his sons, finding love in the one he has tried to kill. The Shakespeare, each supplementing the other in tragical emotions. A sort of burlesque parallelism is found in the comic scenes in Marlowe’s â€Å"Doctor Faustus†. The tragic hero Aristotle recommended for the tragedy a hero who is neither too good nor too evil. This is best seen in Shakespeare’s tragedies. His heroes are all men of high rank and great eminence, but they are brought low by some weakness in their nature.In M acbeth, it was indomitable ambition, in Othello it was an over-credulous nature, and in hmlet, it was a wavering spirit. Tragedy proceeds from the character or the actions of the hero. But Fate or circumstances also plays a dominant role in bringing about the tragedy. The suffering and calamity that fall to the lot of the hero are not of the ordinary type. They are exceptional. Macbeth is pricked by a guilty conscience to such an extent that he feels â€Å"life is a meaningless tale, told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing†.